跨文化交际失误中的语用预设

2024-05-23

跨文化交际失误中的语用预设(精选8篇)

跨文化交际失误中的语用预设 第1篇

跨文化交际失误中的语用预设

【论文关键词】交际;语用预设;共知性

【论文摘要】本文从语用预设的角度,结合语言和文化的基本定义,对跨文化交际中失误现象的产生进行分析,从语言学的角度揭示了跨文化交际失误产生的原因。

语言是一种社会现象,它的社会性决定了语言系统并非像索绪尔说的是“一个封闭系统”,它不可能在真空中独立发展,自生自灭,而是和其他系统发生着千丝万缕的联系。人们的语言表现形式总是受到各种社会文化因素的制约,语言系统内部诸要素(语音、词汇、语法、语用等)无一不与社会文化因素发生错综复杂的联系。萨丕尔(Sapir)在《语言论》中指出:“语言有一个底座,说一种语言的人是属于一个种族(或几个种族)的,也就是说,属于身体上具有某种特征而不同于别的群的一群。语言也不能脱离文化而存在,就是说,不能脱离社会流传下来的、决定我们生活面貌的风格和信仰的总体。”因而,研究语言只有把语言系统放到社会大系统中去考察,才能更好地揭示语言的本质和语言系统的内部规律。文化是一种社会现象,它是人们通过他们的创造性活动而形成的产物,因此,文化是相对于自然而言的。基于以上理解,从语用学和社会语言学的角度,我们认为文化具有如下特征:文化包括语言,语言是文化的重要载体。

语言和文化一样是社会的产物,是生活在该社会的人们世代沿袭下来的符号体系,萨丕尔说:“语言是纯粹人为的,非本能的,凭借自觉地制造出来的`符号系统来传达概念、情绪和欲望的方法。它是一种文化功能,不是一种生活遗传功能。”在人类学中,文化指的是社会共同体的一个成员受全体成员制约的全部生活方式,很明显,按照文化的这种概念来看,语言就是文化的一个部分,而实际上是最重要的部分之一,是唯一的凭其符号作用而跟整个文化相联系的一部分。一个社会的语言是该社会的文化的一个方面,语言和文化是部分和整体的关系。

交际一词在英语里是communication,含义比较复杂,其基本的含义是“与他人分享共同的信息”。交际活动的本质就是把单个人联络在社会的关系网络之中。人是社会的动物,单个人必须通过交际活动同他人结成某种关系,构成社会才能很好地生存下去。这里我们把交际定义为:信息发出者和信息接受者(这里指人与人之间,不指组织之间)传递信息、交流思想感情的社会文化活动。这里需要说明的是交际不等于沟通。发出信息,对方懂了,这是交际,也是沟通;发出信息,对方莫名其妙,这不是沟通,只是交际——不产生效果或产生反效果的交际。在不同民族之间,这种事例屡见不鲜。语言交际是跨文化交际中信息交流的重要形式,但是在跨文化交际中,由于交际者的外语知识掌握得不够,或交际者不了解异族文化的特点,或者说文化背景不同,经常会在交际中出现语言运用上的失误,造成交际的失败或交际冲突。

跨文化交际(intercultural communication)是指发生在不同文化背景的人们之间(包括不同国家的不同文化之间和同一文化体系内部不同亚文化之间,本文指前者)的交际活动。当一种文化信息必须被另一种文化加以解释时,跨文化交际就发生了。

所谓语用预设,主要是说话人主观上的一种预设,指语言交际活动需要满足的恰当条件。基南(Edward L.Keenan)指出:“有许多句子的言语要得到理解则要求先满足某些文化方面的条件或情景。因此,这些条件也就自然地被称作该句子的预设。如果它们没有得到满足,那么所说的话语不是无法理解,就是不按原意来理解的。”这些条件比如:

(1)参与者的地位及其关系种类。

(2)参与者的年龄、性别及其辈分关系。

(3)参与者和句子中所提及的个体之间的地位、亲属、年龄、性别、辈分的关系。

预设也可看作是话语跟使用语境之间的关系,说出一句话就其语境来说是合适的。如法语的“你真讨厌”预设“听话人是动物、孩子、社会地位比说话人低或者跟说话人关系很密切。”

总之,语用预设涉及说话人、听话人和语境三个方面。因此预设关系不能单靠语义分析,必须联系说话人、听话人和语境才能全面正确地理解会话的含义。

语用预设的主要特征可以归纳为两个:合适性与共知性(何自然,1988:111)。

第一,合适性。所谓合适性是指预设要跟语境紧密结合,是言语行为的先决条件。如:

(1)请把那扇门关上。

(2)儿子,把房间打扫一下。

要实现以上请求就必然要求例(1)预设那扇门是开着的,例(2)预设房间是脏的,母亲知道儿子有打扫房间的能力等。如果说(1)时门是关着的,那么发话人就不可能发出上述言语行为。同样,如果要求打扫的房间刚刚打扫过很干净,或者儿子的年纪还小,尚无打扫的能力,那么说(2)就毫无意义。

第二,共知性。语用预设必须是交谈双方所共知的。预设是谈话双方或一般人共知的信息,它与语境紧密结合,预设明确,则说话人说出来的话,受话人可以根据语境和预设做出不同反应。

语用失误是跨文化交际中普遍存在的问题。比如,一位中国教师给日本学生讲完“龟兔赛跑”的故事后,让学生谈谈感想,一个女学生说:“我是多么愿意做一个大乌龟呀!”让老师听后哭笑不得。产生这种交际失误的原因是共知预设不同。这位日本学生语句表达本身没有问题,这当中主要反映了中日两国文化观念、文化习俗上的差异。古代的中国和现代的日本,乌龟都是耐力、长寿的象征意义,所以日本学生会说出“愿意做一个大乌龟”(意即要扎扎实实,一步一个脚印儿地学习)的话。中国教师听后所以有哭笑不得的感觉,是以现代中国人的文化习俗、文化心理来理解日本学生这句话的。从语用预设的共知性的角度来看,乌龟在现在中国人的心目中,另有象征意义,用来暗指妻子有情夫的男子。这就是不同民族的人员在交际中,由于语用共知预设不同所造成的交际障碍,这种语用失误在不同民族间的人员交往中随时随处可见。

从广义上来说,任何语言环境、交际背景都属于语用预设的广义范畴,因此,在进行跨文化交际沟通时,不能忽视语用预设的共知性的要求,否则不但不能达到交际的目的,还会引起交际上的失误。

【参考文献】

[1]索绪尔. 普通语言学教程[M]. 北京:商务印书馆,1980.

[2]赵艳芳. 认知语言学概论[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社,.

[3]姜枉琪. 当代语用学[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社,.

跨文化交际失误中的语用预设 第2篇

浅析跨文化交际中的语用失误

在与外国友人进行交际时,语用失误却频频出现.本文简要论述了语用失误的涵义,分类及其产生的原因,并进一步提出了避免语用失误的`对策.

作 者:许淼 作者单位:华东师范大学外语学院,上海,41刊 名:南方论刊英文刊名:NANFANG LUNKAN年,卷(期):“”(12)分类号:H0关键词:跨文化交际 语用失误

跨文化交际中的语用失误(英文) 第3篇

(Changchun Institute of Technology, Changchun 130012, China

native cultural knowledge and linguistic knowledge in the communication.The possible cultural difference may lead to the failure of communication.This paper aims to find out the reasons on the basis of the examples of intercultural pragmatic failure.It proposes some strategies in avoiding or decreasing the problems in the intercultural communication.

people whose cultural perceptions and symbolic systems are total ly different.The aspects of communication can vary from culture to culture (He Daokuan, 1983) .The communication behaviors which involve the different cultures are called intercultural com munication.It occurs whenever and wherever the message sende is a member of one culture and the receiver is from another cul ture.

by English linguist Thomas.In the intercultural communication both sides have not enough knowledge of the other social cultura condition.Individuals tend to interpret the other people’s utter ance with their own understanding.According to Thomas, the pragmatic failure in the intercultural communication can be classi fied into pragmalinguistic failure and sociopragmatic failure.The former one refers to that of the language expression and language structure.It occurs when the learners do not express themselves linguistically appropriately.The latter refers to the failure caused by knowing no of the knowledge or ignoring the social cultura background of both sides.It arises when learners produce socially of one’s native culture with another person in their intercultural communication.The pragmatic failure in this paper belongs to the later one which is caused by the difference between the different social cultural norms, social distance and social value.

2 Sources for Pragmatic Failures

Pragmatic failure in intercultural communication can be grouped into the following two kinds:those resulted from the individual’s culture and those from his psychology.

2.1 Pragmatic failure resulted from culture

2.1.1 Group orientation in Chinese culture

Collectivism has a deep root in Chinese philosophical culture.Confucianism has such a profound impact that it actually influences all aspects of Chinese life.It is a philosophy of human nature.It looks proper human relationships as the basis of society.Confucianism raises four principles.The right conducts, Ren (humanism) , Li (propriety) and Zhi (wisdom or literal education) arises from them.In China, people lay stress on major primary groups to which an individual belongs.In the interpersonal relationship, each member must pay constant attention to the feelings ed by all the members while it is denounced if anyone distinguishes himself from the others by overdoing something or being indulgent.When the relationship is outside of the family boundary, hierarchy is set based on the age, the experience, the educational background, the gender, the geographical region, the political affiliation and so on.In such a society, any person should be fully aware of his/her obligations and responsibilities to others according to his/her social position.

2.1.2 Individualism and human rights in western orientation

Individualism is highly valued in the West and as a result equality is highly valued.“Individualism is that each individual is unique, special, completely different from all other individuals.And he/she is the basic unit of the nature.”, according to the seventeenth century English philosopher John Locke.If it is a starting premise, we can see“how the interests of the individual ought to be paramount, and that all values, rights, and duties originate in individuals.” (E.Albert, 1968.) .What the individualism advocates is totally different from those advocated by the Chinese.Contrary to the strong interpersonal relationship in the Chinese, the relationships are not an important tie among members in the western societies.

2.1.3 Face saving system

The concept of face is very important in the Chinese culture.We have expressions like“mian zi” (面子) in Chinese and“to lose face”and“to save face”in English.The interpersonal relationships on the concept of face are the main topic of the works of the American sociologist Erving Goffman.

According to Jean Brick, most Americans’self-image (similar to the concept of“face”of the Chinese) is associated with their religious beliefs.They judge a person by whether he is honest, loyal and generous.But for the Chinese, the connotation of face is closely related to his/her social relationship with the others.It is mainly based on the mutual acceptance.In this case, we can make a general conclusion that face in Chinese is more external but the American one is internal.

In the Chinese culture, face is one’s relationship with others and with the society.It shows one’s social power and influence.Besides, it means his/her reputation.It is always valued by the common standards set up by the community he/she belongs to.In order to keep concord with others and avoid breaking the agreement and harmony in the Chinese community, he/she tries to obey the social conventions.So in order to save face, he/she tends to say what most people agree with and avoid saying what others disagree with.In other words, the Chinese are sensitive to the aggressive words and are careful to use them in a more proper way if they have to.

2.1.4 Concept of time

All members of every culture have the different view on concept of using time.A culture’s conception of time can be shown in many different ways.Michael Argyle compares the cultural dif-

“How late is late?”This varies greatly.In Britain, it is allowed to be 15 minutes late for a dinner party.And in Britain and in America, one may be 5 to 10 minutes late for a business appointment, but not 15 minutes late, which is perfectly quite normal in Arab countries.

2.2 Pragmatic failures resulted from psychology

2.2.1 Stereotypes

Stereotype was put forward by Lippman in 1922.He believed that stereotypes were a way of organizing our images into a fixed and simple category which is used to stand for the entire collection of people.When they are regarded as a group, people are thought to have relatively similar beliefs and they will show similar behaviors.So people use such concepts as“the individualistic American”, “the romantic Italian”, “the conservative English”to describe them differently.The reason lies in that human beings have a psychological need to distinguish and categorize themselves and others.The world we live in is such a big world.It is too complicated for us to know all its details.Stereotypes help us classify them.In order to enhance mutual understanding among people from different cultures, it is necessary and inevitable to know the stereotype of the different countries.At the same time, however, any ignorance of the stereotype is potentially an obstruction to the successful cross-cultural communication.It may cause pragmatic failure in intercultural communication.

2.2.2 Anxiety

Many English learners can get very good scores in many test like TOFLE, IELTS and GRE, but they can’t make themselves understood in many intercultural communication.It is the realization of the conflict between performance and competence which is put forward by Chomsky in 1965.When one wants to externalize what is in his mind, he/she has to negotiate with himself/herself.He/she may try to balance his/her feelings by overcoming the pressures from the outside.If the pressure is beyond one’s tolerance, he/she will become anxious.The heavier the pressure, the more anxious one will be.Human beings often feel anxious towards something they haven’t experienced before.While in the intercultural communication, he/she feels bad for he/she has no confidence in his/her foreign language for he/she is not certain if he/she can speak well, as he/she should be.That’s the reason why foreign language learners can perform much better after they have prepared or practiced thoroughly in advance.

2.2.3 Ethnocentrism

In Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, ethnocentrism means:1) A habitual disposition to judge foreign people or groups by the standards and practices of one’s own culture or ethnic group;2) a tendency toward viewing alien cultures with disfavor and a resulting sense of inherent superior.Many scholars believe that these attitudes greatly affect the intercultural communication.

one is brought to the world, he is exposed to a particular culture.He grows up by following the conventional behavior of this particular society and belongs to some particular group.Because of his common sense and unconscious views on other people, he often regards his own customs as the standards for his judgments on others.It is natural to find out that each speaker expects that the other speaker will use the language which is culturally loaded in the same way as he does.In this way, socio-pragmatic failure is most likely to occur.It is the same to the Chinese people.They are likely to believe that people from the other cultural backgrounds are all following the Chinese culture in their communications.Accordingly, the Chinese students tend to say to their aged foreign teachers, “Please sit down.You are old.”etc.It will probably annoy the teachers who worship a“youth culture”.Such expressions may make the foreigners misinterpret it as“It is beyond your ability.”

When they have the intercultural communications with the foreigners, some students wonder why they must conform to the foreign customs and behavioral norms instead of the other way round.They always ask such questions as“Are you married?”, “Do you have children?”“How much do you earn each month?”, “Your dress is beautiful.How much did you pay for it?”, “What is your religion?”etc. (Yu Zebiao, 1997) .They feel very much embarrassed when they know that it is improper or impolite to ask these questions because it is very common to ask those questions in China and it shows the intimate relationship between the two sides.So this kind of pragmatic failure is caused by their ethnocentrism.

3 Strategies in Tackling the Problems in the Intercul-tural Communication.

different psyche arouse so many misunderstanding between the in tercultural communication, it is very necessary and important to use some strategies while communicating.

3.1 Cultivating cultural awareness

Since the most influential factor in the pragmatic failures comes from the ignorance or the misunderstanding of the foreign culture, it calls on the teachers to teach language culturally Many books provide learners with both language knowledge and culture knowledge.The learners are expected to acquire the au thentic language.But we should pay attention to the fact tha most teachers and learners still feel it difficult to communicate with foreigners even though they have learned a lot of cultura er should be fully aware of the importance of learning the culture knowledge of a target language and consciously foster a good habit of culture learning.

3.2 Strengthening culture input

Since most Chinese learners have to learn English in the classroom, they are lack of the opportunities to communicate with the native English speakers.As the leader of an English class, the English teacher often plays a dominant role in the whole learning process.Now things change much better.In some classes, students take leading roles in activating their own culture awareness with the help of their teacher.

So the teachers may provide the students with some situation-specific sociolinguistic information in their interactions.They are encouraged to produce some interesting activities for the students to perform inside or outside classroom.The students may fully involved in the activities like a situation-based role-play, an English song and dubbing.They are the most effective and relaxing way for students to improve their cultural awareness.For foreign language learners, it is not enough to get knowledge from teachers, but from many other ways.A language school should offer some necessary teaching facility for students, for example, a multimedia language lab.After watching a film, students do some discussion over the episodes in it.They can obtain more knowledge through such discussions and learn lots of natural expressions of English from the films.

4 Conclusion

bly conflict.Thus intercultural pragmatic failure like the misunderstanding, misinterpretation and cultural conflict will bring barrier to the communicators.However, if the intercultural awareness is strengthened and cultural knowledge is put emphasis on, the communications between the two cultures will become much better.

参考文献

[1] 何道宽.介绍一门新兴学科—跨文化的交际[J].外国语文教 学, 1983 (2) .

[2] Albert E.Value System.The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences 16[M].New York:Macmillan, 1968.

[3] Chomsky, Chomsky N.Aspect of the Theory of Syntax[M].Cam bridge, Mass:MIT Press, 1965.

跨文化交际中的语用语言失误 第4篇

【摘要】在日常跨文化交际中常常会出现由于语言的原因而造成的语用失误,即语用语言失误。通过了解其在形成原因和表现形式可以帮助中国的语言学习者获得语用能力,最终实现成功交际。

【关键词】语用语言失误 语用能力 交际

一、引言

由英国语言学家Jenny Thomas(1983)提出的语用失误包括:语用语言失误和社交语用失误。其中语用语言失误是由于语法的原因造成的语用失误,一般发生在掌握一门语言之后。也就是说,人们在基本上习得了一门语言之后,在交流中,没有根据当时的语境条件,而是依照自己的母语语言习惯,误用或滥用了英语的表达范式,或者依照母语的语义和结构,套用英语进行表达。

二、语用语言失误

Thomas认为,语言语用失误主要来自以下两个方面的原因:语用语言迁移导致的失误和教学导致的失误。

由于母语的迁移造成的语用语言失误是指在交际过程中,交际者按照母语习惯使用目标语进行交际,而不能得体地使用他所知道的语言结构恰当地进行表达。其不得体主要表现在说话人所使用的语言结构无法帮助其实现交际意图。例如,在汉语中,当然(of course)是表达肯定之意,然而在英语中,不同的语境下,同样的一个“of course”就有不同的言外之力。例如:A: Are you coming to join us? B: Of course. 这里“of course”是表达肯定之意。在这种表示请求的句子中“of course”是表达不言而喻,不用证明之意。然而在用它来回答真正的一般疑问句时,其言外之力就发生了改变。例如:A: Is Zhongxing a good hotel? B: Of course. 这里对于中国人来讲,它当然是好酒店,这是毋庸置疑的。然而对于西方人来讲,他们得到的言外之意是What a stupid question!(Thomas, 1983)

此外,不恰当的语言教学也会造成学生语用方面的失误。所谓教学导致的语用失误是指教学中语法和词汇的教学与语用教学相脱离。例如在讲授短语“for a while”时,学生只知道这个短语表示“一会儿”的意思。但具体应用在何种语境下,这个“一会儿”具体表示多久的时间,老师在教学中却很少涉及。所以当学生没有完成论文,想和外教申请推迟两天交论文时,说“Sorry,I haven't finished my essay. Could you wait for a while?”学生想表达的意思是老师你能不能再等个一、两天。然而外教的理解是你再用一两分钟就可以完成。所以当学生说完上述话语就离开老师办公室,会让老师觉得难以理解,这样就会造成交际的不顺畅。

语言语用失误主要表现在两个方面:一方面,说话人由于言外之力表达不清楚造成语用语言失误;另一方面,听话人在理解说话人用意时脱离语境等误解了说话人的用意。说话人用意没有表达清楚,主要由于说话者在交际中违反“合作原则”中量的准则(quantity maxim),乱用完整句来回答一般问句以及误用省略句造成的。例如:A: Have you bought the boots? B1: Yes, I have. B2: Yes, I have bought the boots. 这里B1和B2的区别在于前者是省略回答,后者是完整回答。前者遵循了“合作原则”中的量的原则,即说话人“所说的话不应包含超出需要的信息”。后者在回答过程中重复了上文中的某些话语,属于多余信息,这就产生会话含义。其言外之力是我买都买了,还问什么,用以表达不耐烦或者发脾气。

此外语用语言失误还体现在听者方面,这主要是由于听者脱离语境,按照字面意思或者按照自己的说话方式来理解说话人的意图而造成的。例如:Mary: Is this coffee sugared? Li: (taking it as an ordinary yes-no question) I don't think so. Does it taste as if it is (sugared)? 这里由于听话者缺少与目标语国家相关的文化知识,把这一问句单纯地理解为是一种询问,即“咖啡放糖了吗?”实际上,在西方,很多人喜欢喝咖啡并且喜欢加糖,因此这个问句的言外之力是想表示批评之意,而非询问咖啡是否加糖。如果Li明白了Mary的言外之意,就不会像上面那样回答,相反她会说“I'm sorry”,然后把糖罐直接拿过来。

三、结束语

作为语言教师,我们不能只承担记录语用失误的任务,我们应该找到造成学生语用失误的原因,从而在教学中正确地选择教学策略,培养学生的交际能力。

参考文献:

[1]Thomas,J.Cross-Cultural Pragmatic Failure[J].Applied Linguistics.1983(4).91-92.

[2]何自然.语用学与英语学习[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,1997.

[3]夏纪梅.英语交际常识:中国人与外国人之间的误会实例分析[M].广州:中山大学出版社,1995.

趣谈跨文化交际中的语用失误现象 第5篇

趣谈跨文化交际中的语用失误现象

语言文化的内涵层次和言语的行为层次是多方面的,本文通过对社会交往诸多方面出现的语用失误实例的分析,指出在与不同文化背景的人群交往时,由文化差异引起的语用失误是跨文化交际失败的`主要原因,注意英汉的文化差异会有助于英语学习者消除跨文化交际中的语用失误.

作 者:王立英 傅晓熙 作者单位:浙江工贸职业技术学院,浙江,温州,325003刊 名:浙江工贸职业技术学院学报英文刊名:JOURNAL OF ZHEJIANG INDUSTRY & TRADE POLYTECHNIC年,卷(期):9(3)分类号:H030关键词:语用失误 跨文化交际 社会交往 文化差异

跨文化交际中的语用失误及原因 第6篇

跨文化交际中的语用失误及原因

在跨文化交际活动中,除了语言的不同,还有文化的差异.跨文化交际中的文化冲突常常引起语用失误.本文从语用学的.角度出发.通过列举语用失误的案例,分析了跨文化交际中的语用失误及其原因,以期学习者在掌握语言形式上知识的同时,还有必要了解在不同文化背景下语用的正确使用与否.

作 者:熊素娟 张静 作者单位:湖北工业大学,湖北,武汉,430067刊 名:华章英文刊名:MAGNIFICENT WRITING年,卷(期):2007“”(9)分类号:H08关键词:跨文化交际 语用失误 语言 文化

跨文化交际失误中的语用预设 第7篇

前言

一、文化和跨文化交际

二、跨文化语用交际及其分析

三、跨文化交际语用失误的原因浅析

四、跨文化交际语用失误的防范方略

小结

跨文化交际中的语用失误浅析

目录

浅析跨文化交际中的语用失误 第8篇

一、语用失误的定义

最早研究语用失误的是英国著名语用学家Jenny Thomas, 她在1983年发表的《跨文化语用失误》 (Cross-Cultural Pragma tic Fa ilure) 一文中指出, 语用失误是不能理解话语的含义 (The ina b ility to und e rs ta nd wha t is me a nt b y wha t is s a id) 。由此, 我们可以得出跨文化交际的语用失误是指文化不同的交际者在交际过程中因未能准确及时地理解话语的隐含意义而导致的误解、不和乃至冲突等现象。我国对语用失误的研究始于何自然等, 他们从1984年开始采用Thoma s的理论对英汉语用差异进行了调查研究, 对语用失误这一概念也作出了许多解释与说明。跨文化语用失误指的是在跨文化交际过程中, 说话人不自觉地违反了交际规范、社会规约。或者不合时间空间、不看对象、不顾交际双方的身份、地位、场合等, 违背目的语特有的文化价值观念, 使交际行为中断或失败, 使语言交际遇到障碍, 导致交际不能取得预期效果或达到完美的交际效果。这种失误不是指语法错误, 而是指说话方式不妥, 或不符合表达习惯, 或不合时宜等, 导致交际不能取得预期效果的失误。例如, 一位在中国工作多年的英国教师到学校礼堂去看电影, 路上遇到他的学生, 学生处于礼貌就打招呼说:“Are you going to the c ine ma?”这位英国教师觉得很奇怪, 心想你们明明知道我去看电影, 还要问我这个问题, 学生走之后, 他说道:“What a s tup id q ue s tion!”

二、语用失误的分类

1. 语言本身的语用失误

包括两个方面, 其一是不符合说英语的本族人的语言习惯, 误用英语的表达方式;其二是不懂英语的正确表达式, 按母语的词义和结构套用英语。比如外宾来中国参观, 行程结束时, 外宾感觉很满意, 就对陪同人员说:“Thank you very much.”陪同人员答道:“It’s my duty to do so.”中方用这样的答语是用于汉语环境下恰当的言语行为, 有时还可以用复合式的言语行为, 即陈述+说明:不用谢——这是我应该做的。在汉语中这绝非有意的冷待, 而是谦逊的答礼。可外宾期望听到:“It’s my pleasure.”他们认为“duty”是另有他意, 他们的理解就是:不用谢, 我是没有办法才这样做的, 因为这是我的职责;否则我是不会来陪你的。所以外宾事后回顾说:“我当时听到这句话感到非常诧异。”

2. 社交语用失误

这是因为在交际中不了解谈话对方的文化背景而影响语言形式选择的失误, 它与谈话双方的身份、语域、话题熟悉程度等有关。例如, 外籍教师刚上完课, 中方领导热情地招呼说:“你好, 辛苦你了。”这句话译成英语就是“Good morning, you must have had a tiring job.”甚至“You mus t ha ve b e e n tire d.”这些都是不自然的。因为英语的非语言环境可以赋予两层含义:一是这个班级很糟糕, 教师上课很费力;二是教师的体力或能力很差, 上一堂课似乎就感到累了需要休息。外籍教师若取此义就感到受辱而气愤。这就是文化差异所造成语言障碍, 有时甚至会引起谈判的失败, 甚而引起不必要的冲突。

三、语用失误的分析

1. 母语负迁移的影响

在第二语言习得中, 语言迁移指的是学习者在用目标语进行交际时借助于母语的语音、词义、语法或文化知识来表达思想的现象, 分为正迁移和负迁移两种。正迁移是学习者的已有知识技能对新知识技能的学习所起的促进作用或产生的积极影响。负迁移是学习者的已有知识对新知识技能的学习所起的阻碍作用或产生的消极影响。正迁移有利于外语学习, 负迁移则阻碍外语学习。例如, 我们在形容一个人很穷, 常会这样比喻:“as poor as a church mous e.”“c hurc h mous e” (教堂老鼠) 这一形象也很有文化特点。中国的庙里的供品是食物, 因而有可能让老鼠富得流油, 如果用这一形象去理解西方教堂, 当然很难理解像“教堂的老鼠, 沾不到一点油水”这样的比喻。

2. 思维模式的差异

思维不仅具有共性, 也具有个性, 即民族性。不同文化背景民族在处理同一问题时可能倾向于使用不同的思维方式, 渐渐地形成不同的思维模式, 从而构成了不同民族之间交往的障碍。比如在服饰方面, 东方人的取向往往是年轻人穿着鲜艳靓丽, 老年人的衣着颜色比较暗淡。在西方, 情形恰好相反。年轻人喜欢穿深色简约的服装, 因为年轻人有较好的容貌和健美的体形, 青年人的朝气并不因服饰的暗淡而湮没, 深色服装穿在年轻人身上只会增添成熟和老练的气度。而老年人却因发色、颜面、体形等不可抗拒的变化, 需要用色彩明快的服装来掩饰。中国学生只要明白了这种东西方服饰文化上的差异, 就不至于对穿着花哨的西方老人指指点点, 评头论足。了解了他国的一些思维模式, 就不会影响跨文化交际, 造成交际中的语用失误。

3. 语用意识薄弱, 教学方法陈旧

在我国长期的英语教学中, 形成了以教单词、语法为中心的传统教学法, 根本就没有考虑到对目的语国家的文化教学。语言是文化的一部分, 是文化的主要表达方式和传播工具, 是文化的载体。不了解语言当中的社会文化, 谁也无法真正掌握语言。文化对语言的影响涉及语言的各个层面。不了解西方文化, 以母语文化的风俗习惯、价值观来应对西方文化, 自然会造成用语失误, 形成交际上的障碍。而我国的教师和学生在这方面的意识都很薄弱, 因为受到升学率的巨大压力, 学生要考出好分数, 进入好的高中、大学;教师要让教出的学生得到高分, 才能被家长看中, 被领导表扬。这样教师就忽视了文化背景知识对语言的重要作用, 忽视了对学生跨文化语言运用意识和能力的培养。这样, 培养出来的学生尽管掌握的词汇量很大, 语法知识也很好, 但是往往缺乏在不同的场合恰当地使用语言的能力, 语用失误多。因此, 旧的应试教育模式已经成为语用能力培养的极大障碍。

四、语用能力的培养

1. 克服母语负迁移的影响

从语言本身的特点来看, 它是人们用于表达事物和意识的特定的任意符号, 它与文化有着密切的关系。语言中储存了一个民族所特有的社会生活经验, 反映了该民族文化的特征。所以说, 语言与文化相辅相成, 不存在没有语言的文化, 也不存在脱离文化的语言。这就需要教师把语言与文化结合起来, 培养学生的文化意识。因此, 教师应该把外语教学置于跨文化交际环境中, 着眼于学生文化意识和运用外语进行跨文化交际能力的培养上。对学生在学习和交际中出现的负语用迁移, 教师应引导学生逐渐改正学习和交际中出现的错误, 帮助他们认识两种语言的文化的差别, 从而减少语言和语用失误, 提高学生的外语语用能力。过去对外语人才的培养目标仅仅定位在听、说、读、写、译等技能层次上, 现在看来已经不能适应市场经济的需要。在国际交往中, 由于人们的交际背景、社会制度、意识形态、思想方法、观念、心理、生活经验等方面的差异, 造成了文化之间的差异, 如果我们不了解对方的文化与风俗习惯, 就不可能进行顺畅、有效的交往。没有了这种交往, 社会的封闭只会停滞经济的发展, 不符合社会发展的规律。

2. 改进教学方法, 培养语用意识

(1) 话语教学。话语教学的主要目的是帮助学生成功地用英语进行交际, 能否恰当地运用英语涉及到语用知识。因此在话语教学时, 教师既要告诉学生英语句子结构使用的一般规律, 又要教会他们活的语言规律和习惯。例如英语的祈使句不一定只用于表示命令, “Have some coffee.”这句话就是表示邀请。

(2) 语法与词汇教学。语法教学的目的主要是提高学生使用语言的能力, 如果在语法教学中能重视与语用知识的结合, 把语用规则融合到各种语法教学中, 就能帮助学生提高他们运用语言的能力。比如to be+inf是用来表示将来的行为结构, 但这个结构如果主语是第二人称, 这时说话者与听话者一般是处于上下级的关系, 语境可以是发出指令:You are to finish this paper by nine.又如a ls o的意思是“也”, 但如果放在句首, 那它的含义就发生改变, 具有转折的含义。

3. 多渠道和方法的综合利用

除了利用话语教学、语法与词汇教学, 有意识地培养学生的语用意识外, 还可以通过其他渠道来培养学生的语用技能, 如看英语电影、录像、阅读现代文学作品, 充分发挥外籍教师的作用等等。也可以用讲座的形式介绍英语国家的文化习俗, 特别是其中与中国不同的文化习俗。例如, 可以专门给学生编写一本英语会话手册, 像《英语九百句》《校园英语短语》一样, 该手册包含最基本、最常见的英汉差异, 并用简单的英语编成对话, 配有讲解和实例, 使语言和文化的学习达到完美的结合。

参考文献

[1]黄次栋.语用学与语用失误[J].外国语, 1984 (1) .

[2]顾芸英.交际能力与语用学原则[J].外语教学与研究, 1986 (3)

[3]胡文仲.文化差异与外语教学[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 1994.

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